Microplastic removal technologies

CONTENTS Chapter 1 3 1.1 Introduction 4 1.2 History and rise of plastics 4 1.3 Plastic composition and properties 5 1.3.1 Stereochemistry 7 1.3.2 Crystallinity 8 1.3.3 Branching 9 1.3.4 Copolymers 10 1.3.5 Common Commodity Plastics 11 1.4 Defining microplastics 12 1.5 Environmental and health concerns 14 1.6 Need for removal technologies 15 Chapter 2 19 2.1 Sources and Pathways 20 2.2.1 Microplastics in Seawater 21 2.2.2 Microplastics in Freshwater Ecosystems 22 2.2.3 Research necessity 23 2.3 Fate and Transport in the Water Cycle 24 CONTENTS Chapter 3 27 3.1 Sampling Method 28 3.2 Pretreatment of Samples 29 3.3 Selection Criteria for Microplastic Identification 30 3.4 Microscopy 30 3.4.1 Optical Microscopy 31 3.4.2 Electron Microscopy 31 3.5 Spectroscopy 31 3.5.1 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) 31 3.5.2 Raman Spectroscopy 33 3.5.3 Thermal and Chromatographic Methods 35 3.6 Advantages, Limitations, and Standardization Challenges 37 Chapter 4 41 4.1 Coagulation and Flocculation 42 4.2 Agglomeration by Sol-Gel Process 44 4.3 Photocatalytic Degradation 46 4.4 Other chemical methods 49 4.4.1 Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs) 49 4.4.2 Ozonation and Chlorination 50 4.5 Summary of Methods 50 4.6 Challenges in Chemical Microplastic Treatment 51 Chapter 5 55 5.1 Introduction 56 5.2 Fundamentals of Membrane Processes 57 5.2.1 Classification of Membrane Processes 57 5.2.2 Membrane Modules 58 5.2.3 Types of Membranes 59 5.2.4 Membrane Materials 59 5.2.5 Operating Modes 60 5.2.6 Membrane Fouling 60 5.3 Membrane Technologies for Microplastic Removal 64 5.3.1 Microfiltration (MF) 66 5.3.2 Ultrafiltration (UF) 66 5.3.3 Nanofiltration (NF) 67 5.3.4 Reverse Osmosis (RO) 68 5.4 MPs Impact on Membrane Fouling 69 5.5 Summary and Future Perspectives 75 Chapter 6 79 6.1 Microbial Degradation and Entrapment 80 6.1.1 Bacterial and Fungal Degradation 82 6.1.2 Degradation by worms and insects 84 6.1.3 Microbial and Biological Entrapment 85 6.1.4 Abiotic-Assisted Degradation 86 6.1.5 Examples from Studies 87 6.2 Biotechnological Advancements 88 6.3 Limitations of Biological Methods 89 6.4 Future Perspectives 90 6.5 Conclusion 91 Chapter 7 95 7.1 Technological Gaps 96 7.2 Policy Frameworks and Regulations 96 7.3 Integration of Circular Economy Principles 97 7.4 Public Awareness and Behavioral Change 97 7.5 Conclusion 98 Acknowledgment 100 REFERENCES 101

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